Adeno-Associated Virus Vector Delivery of a Fragment of Micro-Dystrophin to Treat Muscular Dystrophy

ABSTRACT

The invention provides gene therapy vectors, such as adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, expressing a functional fragment of the miniaturized human micro-dystrophin gene and method of using these vectors to express the fragment of micro-dystrophin in skeletal muscles including diaphragm and cardiac muscle and to protect muscle fibers from injury, increase muscle strength and reduce and/or prevent fibrosis in subjects suffering from muscular dystrophy.

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/473,255, filed Mar. 17, 2017 which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Incorporation by Reference of Material Submitted Electronically

This application contains, as a separate part of the disclosure, a Sequence Listing in computer-readable form which is incorporated by reference in its entirety and identified as follows: Filename: 50217A_Seglisting.txt; Size: 17,751 bytes, created; Mar. 13, 2018.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The invention provides gene therapy vectors, such as adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, expressing a functional fragment of the miniaturized human micro-dystrophin gene and method of using these vectors to express the fragment of micro-dystrophin in skeletal muscles including diaphragm and cardiac muscle and to protect muscle fibers from injury, increase muscle strength and reduce and/or prevent fibrosis in subjects suffering from muscular dystrophy.

BACKGROUND

The importance of muscle mass and strength for daily activities, such as locomotion and breathing, and for whole body metabolism is unequivocal. Deficits in muscle function produce muscular dystrophies (MDs) that are characterized by muscle weakness and wasting and have serious impacts on quality of life. The most well-characterized MDs result from mutations in genes encoding members of the dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC). These MDs result from membrane fragility associated with the loss of sarcolemmal-cytoskeleton tethering by the DAPC. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is one of the most devastating muscle disease affecting 1 in 5000 newborn males.

DMD is caused by mutations in the DMD gene leading to reductions in mRNA and the absence of dystrophin, a 427 kD sarcolemmal protein associated with the dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC) (Hoffman el al., Cell 51(6):919-28, 1987). The DAPC is composed of multiple proteins at the muscle sarcolemma that form a structural link between the extra-cellular matrix (ECM) and the cytoskeleton via dystrophin, an actin binding protein, and alpha-dystroglycan, a laminin-binding protein. These structural links act to stabilize the muscle cell membrane during contraction and protect against contraction-induced damage. With dystrophin loss, membrane fragility results in sarcolemmal tears and an influx of calcium, triggering calcium-activated proteases and segmental fiber necrosis (Straub et al., Curr Opin. Neurol. 10(2): 168-75, 1997). This uncontrolled cycle of muscle degeneration and regeneration ultimately exhausts the muscle stem cell population (Sacco et al., Cell, 2010. 143(7): p. 1059-71; Wallace et al., Annu Rev Physiol, 2009. 71: p. 37-57), resulting in progressive muscle weakness, endomysial inflammation, and fibrotic scarring.

Without membrane stabilization from dystrophin or a micro-dystrophin, DMD will manifest uncontrolled cycles of tissue injury and ultimately replace lost muscle fibers with fibrotic scar tissue through connective tissue proliferation. Fibrosis is characterized by the excessive deposits of ECM matrix proteins, including collagen and elastin. ECM proteins are primarily produced from cytokines such as TGFβ that is released by activated fibroblasts responding to stress and inflammation. Although the primary pathological feature of DMD is myofiber degeneration and necrosis, fibrosis as a pathological consequence has equal repercussions. The over-production of fibrotic tissue restricts muscle regeneration and contributes to progressive muscle weakness in the DMD patient. In one study, the presence of fibrosis on initial DMD muscle biopsies was highly correlated with poor motor outcome at a 10-year follow-up (Desguerre et al., J Neuropathol Exp Neurol, 2009. 68(7): p. 762-7). These results point to fibrosis as a major contributor to DMD muscle dysfunction and highlight the need for early intervention prior to overt fibrosis.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a replication-deficient parvovirus, the single-stranded DNA genome of which is about 4.7 kb in length including 145 nucleotide inverted terminal repeat (ITRs). There are multiple serotypes of AAV. The nucleotide sequences of the genomes of the AAV serotypes are known. For example, the nucleotide sequence of the AAV serotype 2 (AAV2) genome is presented in Srivastava et al., J Virol, 45: 555-564 (1983) as corrected by Ruffing et al., J Gen Virol, 75: 3385-3392 (1994). As other examples, the complete genome of AAV-1 is provided in GenBank Accession No. NC_002077; the complete genome of AAV-3 is provided in GenBank Accession No. NC_1829; the complete genome of AAV-4 is provided in GenBank Accession No. NC_001829; the AAV-5 genome is provided in GenBank Accession No. AF085716; the complete genome of AAV-6 is provided in GenBank Accession No. NC_00 1862; at least portions of AAV-7 and AAV-8 genomes are provided in GenBank Accession Nos. AX753246 and AX753249, respectively (see also U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,282,199 and 7,790,449 relating to AAV-8); the AAV-9 genome is provided in Gao et al., J. Virol., 78: 6381-6388 (2004); the AAV-10 genome is provided in Mol. Ther., 13(1): 67-76 (2006); and the AAV-11 genome is provided in Virology, 330(2): 375-383 (2004). Cloning of the AAVrh.74 serotype is described in Rodino-Klapac., et al. Journal of Translational Medicine 5, 45 (2007). Cis-acting sequences directing viral DNA replication (rep), encapsidation/packaging and host cell chromosome integration are contained within the ITRs. Three AAV promoters (named p5, p19, and p40 for their relative map locations) drive the expression of the two AAV internal open reading frames encoding rep and cap genes. The two rep promoters (p5 and p19), coupled with the differential splicing of the single AAV intron (e.g., at AAV2 nucleotides 2107 and 2227), result in the production of four rep proteins (rep 78, rep 68, rep 52, and rep 40) from the rep gene. Rep proteins possess multiple enzymatic properties that are ultimately responsible for replicating the viral genome. The cap gene is expressed from the p40 promoter and it encodes the three capsid proteins VP1, VP2, and VP3. Alternative splicing and non-consensus translational start sites are responsible for the production of the three related capsid proteins. A single consensus polyadenylation site is located at map position 95 of the AAV genome. The life cycle and genetics of AAV are reviewed in Muzyczka, Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, 158: 97-129 (1992).

AAV possesses unique features that make it attractive as a vector for delivering foreign DNA to cells, for example, in gene therapy. AAV infection of cells in culture is noncytopathic, and natural infection of humans and other animals is silent and asymptomatic. Moreover, AAV infects many mammalian cells allowing the possibility of targeting many different tissues in vivo. Moreover, AAV transduces slowly dividing and non-dividing cells, and can persist essentially for the lifetime of those cells as a transcriptionally active nuclear episome (extrachromosomal element). The AAV proviral genome is infectious as cloned DNA in plasmids which makes construction of recombinant genomes feasible. Furthermore, because the signals directing AAV replication, genome encapsidation and integration are contained within the ITRs of the AAV genome, some or all of the internal approximately 4.3 kb of the genome (encoding replication and structural capsid proteins, rep-cap) may be replaced with foreign DNA such as a gene cassette containing a promoter, a DNA of interest and a polyadenylation signal. The rep and cap proteins may be provided in trans. Another significant feature of AAV is that it is an extremely stable and hearty virus. It easily withstands the conditions used to inactivate adenovirus (56° C. to 65° C. for several hours), making cold preservation of AAV less critical. AAV may even be lyophilized. Finally, AAV-infected cells are not resistant to superinfection.

Multiple studies have demonstrated long-term (>1.5 years) recombinant AAV-mediated protein expression in muscle. See. Clark et al., Hum Gene Ther, 8: 659-669 (1997); Kessler et al., Proc Nat. Acad Sc. USA, 93: 14082-14087 (1996); and Xiao et al., J Virol, 70: 8098-8108 (1996). See also, Chao et al., Mol Ther, 2:619-623 (2000) and Chao et al., Mol Ther, 4:217-222 (2001). Moreover, because muscle is highly vascularized, recombinant AAV transduction has resulted in the appearance of transgene products in the systemic circulation following intramuscular injection as described in Herzog et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 94: 5804-5809 (1997) and Murphy et al., Proc Nall Acad Sci USA, 94: 13921-13926 (1997). Moreover, Lewis et al., J Virol, 76: 8769-8775 (2002) demonstrated that skeletal myofibers possess the necessary cellular factors for correct antibody glycosylation, folding, and secretion, indicating that muscle is capable of stable expression of secreted protein therapeutics.

Functional improvement in patients suffering from DMD and other muscular dystrophies requires gene restoration at an early stage of disease. There is a need for treatments that increase muscle strength and protect against muscle injury in patients suffering from DMD.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The present invention is directed to gene therapy vectors, e.g. AAV, expressing a functional fragment of the micro-dystrophin protein to skeletal muscles including diaphragm and cardiac muscle to protect muscle fibers from injury, increase muscle strength and reduce and/or prevent fibrosis. The invention provides for therapies and approaches for increasing muscular force and/or increasing muscle mass using gene therapy vectors to deliver a functional fragment of micro-dystrophin to address the gene defect observed in DMD.

In one embodiment, the invention provides for a rAAV vector comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1. The nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 is a functional micro-dystrophin containing a large rod deletion. It retains hinges 1 and 4 and spectrin repeat 24. It also contains the C-terminal fragment of dystrophin. The functional activity of the micro-dystrophin protein is to provide stability to the muscle membrane during muscle contraction, e.g. micro-dystrophin acts as a shock absorber during muscle contraction.

The invention provides for a recombinant AAV vector comprising the functional fragment of the micro-dystrophin nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 and the MHCK7 promoter nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3.

The invention also provides for a recombinant AAV vector comprising the pAAV.MHCK7.micro-dystrophin.C-term construct nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2.

The term “muscle specific control element” refers to a nucleotide sequence that regulates expression of a coding sequence that is specific for expression in muscle tissue. These control elements include enhancers and promoters, The invention provides for constructs comprising the muscle specific controls element MCKH7 promoter, the MCK promoter and the MCK enhancer.

In one aspect, the invention provides for a rAAV vector comprising a muscle specific control element and the functional fragment of the microdystrophin gene. For example, the muscle-specific control element is a human skeletal actin gene element, cardiac actin gene element, myocyte-specific enhancer binding factor mef, muscle creatine kinase (MCK), truncated MCK (tMCK), myosin heavy chain (MHC), hybrid α-myosin heavy chain enhancer-/MCK enhancer-promoter (MHCK7), C5-12, murine creatine kinase enhancer element, skeletal fast-twitch troponin c gene element, slow-twitch cardiac troponin c gene element, the slow-twitch troponin i gene element, hypoxia-inducible nuclear factors, steroid-inducible element or glucocorticoid response element (gre).

For examples, the muscle specific control element is the MHCK7 promoter nucleotide sequence SEQ ID NO: 3 or the muscle specific control element is MCK nucleotide sequence SEQ ID NO: 4. In addition, in any of the rAAV vectors of the invention, the muscle specific control element nucleotide sequence, e.g. MHCK7 or MCK nucleotide sequence, is operably linked to the nucleotide sequence encoding the micro-dystrophin protein. For example, the MHCK7 promoter nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 3) is operably linked to the functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin gene (SEQ ID NO: 1) as set out in the construct provided in FIG. 1 or FIG. 5 (SEQ ID NO: 2). The MCK promoter nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO: 4) is operably linked to the functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin gene (SEQ ID NO: 1).

In a further aspect, the invention provides for a rAAV vector comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 and shown in FIG. 1 . This rAAV vector comprises the MHCK7 promoter, a chimeric intron sequence, the coding sequence for a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin gene, polyA, ampicillin resistance and the pGEX plasmid backbone with pBR322 origin or replication.

The rAAV vectors of the invention may be any AAV serotype, such as the serotype AAVrh.74, AAV1, AAV2, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8, AAV9, AAV10, AAV11, AAV12 or AAV13.

The invention also provides for pharmaceutical compositions (or sometimes referred to herein as simply “compositions”) comprising any of the rAAV vectors of the invention.

In another embodiment, the invention provides for methods of producing a rAAV vector particle comprising culturing a cell that has been transfected with any rAAV vector of the invention and recovering rAAV particles from the supernatant of the transfected cells. The invention also provides for viral particles comprising any of the recombinant AAV vectors of the invention.

The invention provides for methods of treating muscular dystrophy comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of any of the recombinant AAV vector of the invention expressing a functional fragment of human micro-dystrophin gene.

The invention provides for methods of treating muscular dystrophy comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a recombinant AAV vector comprising the functional fragment of human micro-dystrophin nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 and the MHCK7 promoter nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3.

The invention also provides for methods of treating muscular dystrophy comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a recombinant AAV vector comprising the construct pAAV.MHCK7.micro-dystrophin.C-term nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2. “Fibrosis” refers to the excessive or unregulated deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) components and abnormal repair processes in tissues upon injury including skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, liver, lung, kidney, and pancreas. The ECM components that are deposited include fibronectin and collagen, e.g. collagen 1, collagen 2 or collagen 3.

In another embodiment, the invention provides for methods of preventing fibrosis in a subject in need comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the any recombinant AAV vector of the invention expresses a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin protein targeted to the muscle and enhanced cardiac gene delivery and expression in the heart. For example, any of the rAAV of the invention are administered to subjects suffering from muscular dystrophy to prevent fibrosis, e.g. the rAAV,

of the invention expressing a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin protein administered before fibrosis is observed in the subject. In addition, the rAAV of the invention expressing a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin gene are administered to a subject at risk of developing fibrosis, such as those suffering or diagnosed with muscular dystrophy, e.g. DMD. The rAAV of the invention are administered to the subject suffering from muscular dystrophy in order to prevent new fibrosis in these subjects. These methods may further comprise the step of administering a rAAV expressing micro-dystrophin.

The invention contemplates administering any of the AAV vectors of the invention before fibrosis is observed in the subject. In addition, the rAAV of the invention are administered to a subject at risk of developing fibrosis, such as those suffering or diagnosed with muscular dystrophy, e.g. DMD. The rAAV of the invention are administered to the subject suffering from muscular dystrophy who already has developed fibrosis in order to prevent new fibrosis in these subjects.

The invention also provides for methods of increasing muscular force and/or muscle mass in a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of any of the rAAV vector of the invention expressing a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin gene. These methods may further comprise the step of administering a rAAV expressing a functional fragment of the micro-dystrophin protein.

The invention contemplates administering any of the AAV vectors of the invention to patients diagnosed with DMD before fibrosis is observed in the subject or before the muscle force has been reduced or before the muscle mass has been reduced.

The invention also contemplates administering any of the rAAV of the invention to a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy who already has developed fibrosis, in order to prevent new fibrosis in these subjects. The invention also provides for administering any of the rAAV of the invention to the patient suffering from muscular dystrophy who already has reduced muscle force or has reduced muscle mass in order to protect the muscle from further injury.

In any of the methods of the invention, the subject may be suffering from muscular dystrophy such as DMD or any other dystrophin-associated muscular dystrophy.

In another aspect, the rAAV vectors expressing the micro-dystrophin protein comprises the coding sequence of the micro-dystrophin gene operably linked to a muscle-specific control element other than MHCK7 or MCK. For example, the muscle-specific control element is human skeletal actin gene element, cardiac actin gene element, myocyte-specific enhancer binding factor MEF, tMCK (truncated MCK), myosin heavy chain (MHC), C5-12 (synthetic promoter), murine creatine kinase enhancer element, skeletal fast-twitch troponin C gene element, slow-twitch cardiac troponin C gene element, the slow-twitch troponin I gene element, hypozia-inducible nuclear factors, steroid-inducible element or glucocorticoid response element (GRE).

In any of the methods of the invention, the rAAV vector or composition is administered by intramuscular injection or intravenous injection.

In addition, in any of the methods of the invention, the rAAV vector or composition is administered systemically. For examples, the rAAV vector or composition is parentally administration by injection, infusion or implantation.

In another embodiment, the invention provides for composition comprising any of the rAAV vectors of the invention for reducing fibrosis in a subject in need.

In addition, the invention provides for compositions comprising any of the recombinant AAV vectors of the invention for preventing fibrosis in a patient suffering from muscular dystrophy.

The invention provides for compositions comprising any of the recombinant AAV vectors of the invention for treating muscular dystrophy.

The invention provides for compositions comprising a recombinant AAV vector comprising a functional fragment of human micro-dystrophin nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 and the MHCK7 promoter sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3 for treatment of muscular dystrophy.

The invention provides for composition comprising a recombinant AAV vector comprising the construct pAAV.MHCK7.micro-dystrophin.C-term nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 for treatment of muscular dystrophy.

The invention also provides for compositions comprising any of the rAAV vectors of the invention for increasing muscular force and/or muscle mass in a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy. In a further embodiment, the invention provides for compositions comprising any of the rAAV vectors of the invention for treatment of muscular dystrophy.

The compositions of the invention are formulated for intramuscular injection or intravenous injection. The composition of the invention is also formulated for systemic administration, such as parentally administration by injection, infusion or implantation.

In addition, any of the compositions are formulated for administration to a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy such as DMD or any other dystrophin associated muscular dystrophy.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides for use of any of the rAAV vectors of the invention for preparation of a medicament for reducing fibrosis in a subject in need. For example, the subject is in need suffering from muscular dystrophy, such as DMD or any other dystrophin associated muscular dystrophy.

In another embodiment, the invention provides for provides for use of any of the rAAV vectors of the invention for the preparation of a medicament for preventing fibrosis in a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy.

In addition, the invention provides for use of the recombinant AAV vectors of the invention for the preparation of a medicament for increasing muscular strength and/or muscle mass in a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy.

The invention also provides for use of the rAAV vectors of the invention for the preparation of a medicament for treatment of muscular dystrophy.

The invention provides for use of a recombinant AAV vector comprising a fragment of the human micro-dystrophin nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 and the MHCK7 promoter nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3 for preparation of a medicament for the treatment of muscular dystrophy.

The invention provides for use of a recombinant AAV vector comprising the construct pAAV.MHCK7.micro-dystrophin.C-term nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2 for treatment of muscular dystrophy.

In any of the uses of the invention, the medicament is formulated for intramuscular injection or intravenous injection. In addition, in any of the uses of the invention, the medicament is formulated for systemic administration such as parental administration by injection, infusion or implantation.

Any of the medicaments may be prepared for administration to a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy such as DMD or any other dystrophin associated muscular dystrophy.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWING

FIG. 1 provides a schematic of the rAAVrh74.MHCK7. c-TERMINUS.micro-dystrophin. This rAAV vector comprises the MHCK7 promoter (790 bp), a chimeric intron sequence, the coding sequence for a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin gene, polyA, ampicillin resistance and the pGEX plasmid backbone with pBR322 origin or replication.

FIG. 2 depicts expression studies after injection into the tibialis anterior muscle in mdx mice at 1×1011 vg or 3×1011 vg. Good expression was observed at both does.

FIG. 3 provides immunohistological staining for dystrophin with the C-terminal polyclonal antibody after injection into the tibialis anterior muscle.

FIG. 4 demonstrates widespread transduction of cardiac muscle fibers after systemic administration of rAAVrh.74.MHCK7.micro-dys.c-term. Table 1. Provides quantification of micro-dys.C-term expression following systemic delivery. 4 random 20X images were counted and expressed as a percentage of positive fibers versus all muscle fibers in the images. Mean±SD of 5 animals.

FIG. 5 provides the nucleic acid sequence of the rAAVrh74.MHCK7. c-TERMINUS.micro-dystrophin construct (SEQ ID NO: 2).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention provides for gene therapy vectors, e.g. rAAV vectors, overexpressing a functional fragment of the human micro-dystrophin protein and methods of reducing and preventing fibrosis in muscular dystrophy patients. Muscle biopsies taken at the earliest age of diagnosis of DMD reveal prominent connective tissue proliferation. Muscle fibrosis is deleterious in multiple ways. It reduces normal transit of endomysial nutrients through connective tissue barriers, reduces the blood flow and deprives muscle of vascular-derived nutritional constituents, and functionally contributes to early loss of ambulation through limb contractures. Over time, treatment challenges multiply as a result of marked fibrosis in muscle. This can be observed in muscle biopsies comparing connective tissue proliferation at successive time points. The process continues to exacerbate leading to loss of ambulation and accelerating out of control, especially in wheelchair-dependent patients.

Without early treatment a parallel approach to reduce fibrosis it is unlikely that the benefits of exon skipping, stop-codon read-through or gene replacement therapies can ever be fully achieved. Even small molecules or protein replacement strategies arc likely to fail without an approach to reduce muscle fibrosis. Previous work in aged mdx mice with existing fibrosis treated with AAV.micro-dystrophin demonstrated that we could not achieve full functional restoration (Liu, M., et al., Mol Ther 11, 245-256 (2005)). It is also known that progression of DMD cardiomyopathy is accompanied by scarring and fibrosis in the ventricular wall.

As used herein, the term “AAV” is a standard abbreviation for adeno-associated virus. Adeno-associated virus is a single-stranded DNA parvovirus that grows only in cells in which certain functions are provided by a co-infecting helper virus. There are currently thirteen serotypes of AAV that have been characterized. General information and reviews of AAV can be found in, for example, Carter, 1989, Handbook of Parvoviruses, Vol. 1, pp. 169-228, and Berns, 1990, Virology, pp. 1743-1764, Raven Press, (New York). However, it is fully expected that these same principles will be applicable to additional AAV serotypes since it is well known that the various serotypes are quite closely related, both structurally and functionally, even at the genetic level. (See, for example. Blacklowe, 1988, pp. 165-174 of Parvoviruses and Human Disease, J. R. Pattison, ed.; and Rose, Comprehensive Virology 3:1-61 (1974)). For example, all AAV serotypes apparently exhibit very similar replication properties mediated by homologous rep genes; and all bear three related capsid proteins such as those expressed in AAV2. The degree of relatedness is further suggested by heteroduplex analysis which reveals extensive cross-hybridization between serotypes along the length of the genome; and the presence of analogous self-annealing segments at the termini that correspond to “inverted terminal repeat sequences” (ITRs). The similar infectivity patterns also suggest that the replication functions in each serotype are under similar regulatory control.

An “AAV vector” as used herein refers to a vector comprising one or more polynucleotides of interest (or transgenes) that are flanked by AAV terminal repeat sequences (ITRs). Such AAV vectors can be replicated and packaged into infectious viral particles when present in a host cell that has been transfected with a vector encoding and expressing rep and cap gene products.

An “AAV virion” or “AAV viral particle” or “AAV vector particle” refers to a viral particle composed of at least one AAV capsid protein and an encapsidated polynucleotide AAV vector. If the particle comprises a heterologous polynucleotide (i.e. a polynucleotide other than a wild-type AAV genome such as a transgene to be delivered to a mammalian cell), it is typically referred to as an “AAV vector particle” or simply an “AAV vector”. Thus, production of AAV vector particle necessarily includes production of AAV vector; as such a vector is contained within an AAV vector particle.

AAV

Recombinant AAV genomes of the invention comprise nucleic acid molecule of the invention and one or more AAV ITRs flanking a nucleic acid molecule. AAV DNA in the rAAV genomes may be from any AAV serotype for which a recombinant virus can be derived including, but not limited to, AAV serotypes AAVrh.74, AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6, AAV-7, AAV-8, AAV-9, AAV-10, AAV-11, AAV-12 and AAV-13. Production of pseudotyped rAAV is disclosed in, for example, WO 01/83692. Other types of rAAV variants, for example rAAV with capsid mutations, are also contemplated. See, for example, Marsic et al., Molecular Therapy, 22(11): 1900-1909 (2014). As noted in the Background section above, the nucleotide sequences of the genomes of various AAV serotypes are known in the art. To promote skeletal muscle specific expression, AAV1, AAV6, AAV8 or AAVrh.74 may be used.

DNA plasmids of the invention comprise rAAV genomes of the invention. The DNA plasmids are transferred to cells permissible for infection with a helper virus of AAV (e.g., adenovirus, E1-deleted adenovirus or herpesvirus) for assembly of the rAAV genome into infectious viral particles. Techniques to produce rAAV particles, in which an AAV genome to be packaged, rep and cap genes, and helper virus functions are provided to a cell, are standard in the art. Production of rAAV requires that the following components are present within a single cell (denoted herein as a packaging cell): a rAAV genome, AAV rep and cap genes separate from (i.e., not in) the rAAV genome, and helper virus functions. The AAV rep and cap genes may be from any AAV serotype for which recombinant virus can be derived and may be from a different AAV serotype than the rAAV genome ITRs, including, but not limited to, AAV serotypes AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6, AAV-7, AAVrh.74, AAV-8, AAV-9, AAV-10, AAV-11, AAV-12 and AAV-13. Production of pseudotyped rAAV is disclosed in, for example, WO 01/83692 which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Methods of generating a packaging cell comprise creating a cell line that stably expresses all the necessary components for AAV particle production. For example, a plasmid (or multiple plasmids) comprising a rAAV genome lacking AAV rep and cap genes, AAV rep and cap genes separate from the rAAV genome, and a selectable marker, such as a neomycin resistance gene, are integrated into the genome of a cell. AAV genomes have been introduced into bacterial plasmids by procedures such as GC tailing (Samulski et al., 1982, Proc. Natl. Acad. S6. USA, 79:2077-2081), addition of synthetic linkers containing restriction endonuclease cleavage sites (Laughlin et al., 1983, Gene, 23:65-73) or by direct, blunt-end ligation (Senapathy & Carter, 1984, J. Biol. Chem., 259:4661-4666). The packaging cell line is then infected with a helper virus such as adenovirus. The advantages of this method are that the cells are selectable and are suitable for large-scale production of rAAV. Other examples of suitable methods employ adenovirus or baculovirus rather than plasmids to introduce rAAV genomes and/or rep and cap genes into packaging cells.

General principles of rAAV production are reviewed in, for example, Carter, 1992, Current Opinions in Biotechnology, 1533-539; and Muzyczka, 1992, Curr. Topics in Microbial. and Immunol., 158:97-129). Various approaches are described in Ratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2072 (1984); Hermonat et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sri. USA, 81:6466 (1984); Tratschin et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3251 (1985); McLaughlin et al., J. Virol., 62:1963 (1988); and Lebkowski et al., Mol. Cell. Biol., 7:349 (1988). Samulski et al., J. Virol., 63:3822-3828 (1989); U.S. Pat. No. 5,173,414; WO 95/13365 and corresponding U.S. Pat. No. 5,658,776; WO 95/13392; WO 96/17947; PCT/US98/18600; WO 97/09441 (PCT/US96/14423); WO 97/08298 (PCT/US96/13872); WO 97/21825 (PCT/US96/20777); WO 97/06243 (PCT/FR96/01064); WO 99/11764; Perrin et al. Vaccine 13:1244-1250 (1995); Paul et al. Human Gene Therapy 4:609-615 (1993); Clark et al. Gene Therapy 3:1124-1132 (1996); U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,786,211; 5,871,982; and 6,258,595. The foregoing documents arc hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety herein, with particular emphasis on those sections of the documents relating to rAAV production.

The invention thus provides packaging cells that produce infectious rAAV. In one embodiment packaging cells may be stably transformed cancer cells such as HeLa cells, 293 cells and PerC.6 cells (a cognate 293 line). In another embodiment, packaging cells are cells that are not transformed cancer cells, such as low passage 293 cells (human fetal kidney cells transformed with E1 of adenovirus), MRC-5 cells (human fetal fibroblasts), WI-38 cells (human fetal fibroblasts), Vero cells (monkey kidney cells) and FRhL-2 cells (rhesus fetal lung cells).

Recombinant AAV (i.e., infectious encapsidated rAAV particles) of the invention comprise a rAAV genome. In exemplary embodiments, the genomes of both rAAV lack AAV rep and cap DNA, that is, there is no AAV rep or cap DNA between the ITRs of the genomes. Examples of rAAV that may be constructed to comprise the nucleic acid molecules of the invention are set out in International Patent Application No. PCT/US2012/047999 (WO 2013/016352) incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

The rAAV may be purified by methods standard in the art such as by column chromatography or cesium chloride gradients. Methods for purifying rAAV vectors from helper virus are known in the art and include methods disclosed in, for example, Clark et al., Hum. Gene Ther., 10(6): 1031-1039 (1999); Schenpp and Clark, Methods Mol. Med., 69 427-443 (2002); U.S. Pat. No. 6,566,118 and WO 98/09657.

In another embodiment, the invention contemplates compositions comprising rAAV of the present invention. Compositions of the invention comprise rAAV and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The compositions may also comprise other ingredients such as diluents and adjuvants. Acceptable carriers, diluents and adjuvants are nontoxic to recipients and are preferably inert at the dosages and concentrations employed, and include buffers and surfactants such as pluronics.

Titers of rAAV to be administered in methods of the invention will vary depending, for example, on the particular rAAV, the mode of administration, the treatment goal, the individual, and the cell type(s) being targeted, and may be determined by methods standard in the art. Titers of rAAV may range from about 1×10⁶, about 1×10⁷, about 1×10⁸, about 1×10⁹, about 1×10¹⁰, about 1×10¹¹, about 1×10¹², about 1×10¹³ to about 1×10¹⁴ or more DNase resistant particles (DRP) per ml. Dosages may also be expressed in units of viral genomes (vg).

Methods of transducing a target cell with rAAV, in vivo or in vitro, are contemplated by the invention. The in vivo methods comprise the step of administering an effective dose, or effective multiple doses, of a composition comprising a rAAV of the invention to an animal (including a human being) in need thereof. If the dose is administered prior to development of a disorder/disease, the administration is prophylactic. If the dose is administered after the development of a disorder/disease, the administration is therapeutic. In embodiments of the invention, an effective dose is a dose that alleviates (eliminates or reduces) at least one symptom associated with the disorder/disease state being treated, that slows or prevents progression to a disorder/disease state, that slows or prevents progression of a disorder/disease state, that diminishes the extent of disease, that results in remission (partial or total) of disease, and/or that prolongs survival. An example of a disease contemplated for prevention or treatment with methods of the invention is FSHD.

Combination therapies are also contemplated by the invention. Combination as used herein includes both simultaneous treatment and sequential treatments. Combinations of methods of the invention with standard medical treatments (e.g., corticosteroids) are specifically contemplated, as are combinations with novel therapies.

Administration of an effective dose of the compositions may be by routes standard in the art including, but not limited to, intramuscular, parenteral, intravenous, oral, buccal, nasal, pulmonary, intracranial, intraosseous, intraocular, rectal, or vaginal. Route(s) of administration and serotype(s) of AAV components of the rAAV (in particular, the AAV ITRs and capsid protein) of the invention may be chosen and/or matched by those skilled in the art taking into account the infection and/or disease state being treated and the target cells/tissue(s) that are to express the micro-dystrophin protein.

The invention provides for local administration and systemic administration of an effective dose of rAAV and compositions of the invention. For example, systemic administration is administration into the circulatory system so that the entire body is affected. Systemic administration includes enteral administration such as absorption through the gastrointestinal tract and parental administration through injection, infusion or implantation.

In particular, actual administration of rAAV of the present invention may be accomplished by using any physical method that will transport the rAAV recombinant vector into the target tissue of an animal. Administration according to the invention includes, but is not limited to, injection into muscle, the bloodstream and/or directly into the liver. Simply resuspending a rAAV in phosphate buffered saline has been demonstrated to be sufficient to provide a vehicle useful for muscle tissue expression, and there are no known restrictions on the carriers or other components that can be co-administered with the rAAV (although compositions that degrade DNA should be avoided in the normal manner with rAAV). Capsid proteins of a rAAV may be modified so that the rAAV is targeted to a particular target tissue of interest such as muscle. See, for example, WO 02/053703, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. Pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared as injectable formulations or as topical formulations to be delivered to the muscles by transdermal transport. Numerous formulations for both intramuscular injection and transdermal transport have been previously developed and can be used in the practice of the invention. The rAAV can be used with any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for ease of administration and handling.

The dose of rAAV to be administered in methods disclosed herein will vary depending, for example, on the particular rAAV, the mode of administration, the treatment goal, the individual, and the cell type(s) being targeted, and may be determined by methods standard in the art. Titers of each rAAV administered may range from about 1×10⁶, about 1×10⁷, about 1×10⁸, about 1×10⁹, about 1×10¹⁰, about 1×10¹¹, about 1×10¹², about 1×10¹³, about 1×10¹⁴, or to about 1×10¹⁵ or more DNase resistant particles (DRP) per ml. Dosages may also be expressed in units of viral genomes (vg) (i.e., 1×10⁷ vg, 1×10⁸ vg, 1×10⁹ vg, 1×10¹⁰ vg, 1×10¹¹ vg, 1×10¹² vg, 1×10¹³ vg, 1×10¹⁴ vg, 1×10¹⁵ respectively). Dosages may also be expressed in units of viral genomes (vg) per kilogram (kg) of bodyweight (i.e., 1×10¹⁰ vg/kg, 1×10″ vg/kg, 1×10¹² vg/kg, 1×10¹³ vg/kg, 1×10¹⁴ vg/kg, 1×10¹⁵ vg/kg respectively). Methods for titering AAV are described in Clark et al., Hum. Gene Ther., 10: 1031-1039 (1999).

In particular, actual administration of rAAV of the present invention may be accomplished by using any physical method that will transport the rAAV recombinant vector into the target tissue of an animal. Administration according to the invention includes, but is not limited to, injection into muscle, the bloodstream and/or directly into the liver. Simply resuspending a rAAV in phosphate buffered saline has been demonstrated to be sufficient to provide a vehicle useful for muscle tissue expression, and there are no known restrictions on the carriers or other components that can be co-administered with the rAAV (although compositions that degrade DNA should be avoided in the normal manner with rAAV). Capsid proteins of a rAAV may be modified so that the rAAV is targeted to a particular target tissue of interest such as muscle. See, for example, WO 02/053703, the disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. Pharmaceutical compositions can be prepared as injectable formulations or as topical formulations to be delivered to the muscles by transdermal transport. Numerous formulations for both intramuscular injection and transdermal transport have been previously developed and can be used in the practice of the invention. The rAAV can be used with any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for ease of administration and handling.

For purposes of intramuscular injection, solutions in an adjuvant such as sesame or peanut oil or in aqueous propylene glycol can be employed, as well as sterile aqueous solutions. Such aqueous solutions can be buffered, if desired, and the liquid diluent first rendered isotonic with saline or glucose. Solutions of rAAV as a free acid (DNA contains acidic phosphate groups) or a pharmacologically acceptable salt can be prepared in water suitably mixed with a surfactant such as hydroxpropylcellulose. A dispersion of rAAV can also be prepared in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols and mixtures thereof and in oils. Under ordinary conditions of storage and use, these preparations contain a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms. In this connection, the sterile aqueous media employed are all readily obtainable by standard techniques well-known to those skilled in the art.

The pharmaceutical carriers, diluents or excipients suitable for injectable use include sterile aqueous solutions or dispersions and sterile powders for the extemporaneous preparation of sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. In all cases the form must be sterile and must be fluid to the extent that easy syringability exists. It must be stable under the conditions of manufacture and storage and must be preserved against the contaminating actions of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. The carrier can be a solvent or dispersion medium containing, for example, water, ethanol, polyol (for example, glycerol, propylene glycol, liquid polyethylene glycol and the like), suitable mixtures thereof, and vegetable oils. The proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of a dispersion and by the use of surfactants. The prevention of the action of microorganisms can be brought about by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, for example, parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, thimerosal and the like. In many cases it will be preferable to include isotonic agents, for example, sugars or sodium chloride. Prolonged absorption of the injectable compositions can be brought about by use of agents delaying absorption, for example, aluminum monostearate and gelatin.

Sterile injectable solutions are prepared by incorporating rAAV in the required amount in the appropriate solvent with various other ingredients enumerated above, as required, followed by filter sterilization. Generally, dispersions are prepared by incorporating the sterilized active ingredient into a sterile vehicle which contains the basic dispersion medium and the required other ingredients from those enumerated above. In the case of sterile powders for the preparation of sterile injectable solutions, the preferred methods of preparation are vacuum drying and the freeze drying technique that yield a powder of the active ingredient plus any additional desired ingredient from the previously sterile-filtered solution thereof.

Transduction with rAAV may also be carried out in vitro. In one embodiment, desired target muscle cells are removed from the subject, transduced with rAAV and reintroduced into the subject. Alternatively, syngeneic or xenogeneic muscle cells can be used where those cells will not generate an inappropriate immune response in the subject.

Suitable methods for the transduction and reintroduction of transduced cells into a subject are known in the art. In one embodiment, cells can be transduced in vitro by combining rAAV with muscle cells, e.g., in appropriate media, and screening for those cells harboring the DNA of interest using conventional techniques such as Southern blots and/or PCR, or by using selectable markers. Transduced cells can then be formulated into pharmaceutical compositions, and the composition introduced into the subject by various techniques, such as by intramuscular, intravenous, subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection, or by injection into smooth and cardiac muscle, using e.g., a catheter.

Transduction of cells with rAAV of the invention results in sustained expression of the micro-dystrophin protein. The present invention thus provides methods of administering/delivering rAAV which express of micro-dystrophin protein to an animal, preferably a human being. These methods include transducing tissues (including, but not limited to, tissues such as muscle, organs such as liver and brain, and glands such as salivary glands) with one or more rAAV of the present invention. Transduction may be carried out with gene cassettes comprising tissue specific control elements. For example, one embodiment of the invention provides methods of transducing muscle cells and muscle tissues directed by muscle specific control elements, including, but not limited to, those derived from the actin and myosin gene families, such as from the myoD gene family (See Weintraub et al., Science, 251: 761-766 (1991)), the myocyte-specific enhancer binding factor MEF-2 (Cserjesi and Olson, Mol Cell Biol 11: 4854-4862 (1991)), control elements derived from the human skeletal actin gene (Muscat et al., Mol Cell Biol, 7: 4089-4099 (1987)), the cardiac actin gene, muscle creatine kinase sequence elements (See Johnson et al., Mol Cell Biol, 9:3393-3399 (1989)) and the murine creatine kinase enhancer (mCK) element, control elements derived from the skeletal fast-twitch troponin C gene, the slow-twitch cardiac troponin C gene and the slow-twitch troponin I gene: hypoxia-inducible nuclear factors (Semenza et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 88: 5680-5684 (1991)), steroid-inducible elements and promoters including the glucocorticoid response element (GRE) (See Mader and White, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 5603-5607 (1993)), and other control elements.

Muscle tissue is an attractive target for in vivo DNA delivery, because it is not a vital organ and is easy to access. The invention contemplates sustained expression of microdystrophin from transduced myofibers.

By “muscle cell” or “muscle tissue” is meant a cell or group of cells derived from muscle of any kind (for example, skeletal muscle and smooth muscle, e.g. from the digestive tract, urinary bladder, blood vessels or cardiac tissue). Such muscle cells may be differentiated or undifferentiated, such as myoblasts, myocytes, myotubes, cardiomyocytes and cardiomyoblasts.

The term “transduction” is used to refer to the administration/delivery of the coding region of the micro-dystrophin to a recipient cell either in vivo or in vitro, via a replication-deficient rAAV of the invention resulting in expression of micro-dystrophin by the recipient cell.

Thus, the invention provides methods of administering an effective dose (or doses, administered essentially simultaneously or doses given at intervals) of rAAV that encode micro-dystrophin to a patient in need thereof.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Generation of the pAAV.MHCK7.Micro-Dystrophin.C-Terminus Construct

The pAAV.MHCK7.micro-dystrophin.C-term plasmid contained a human micro-dystrophin cDNA expression cassette flanked by AAV2 inverted terminal repeat sequences (ITR). The micro-dystrophin cassette included the C-terminal domain of dystrophin allowing it to bind to endogenous binding partners (Syntrophins, α-Dystrobrevin, nNOS) important for cell signaling events. Initial work with this cassette was focused on cardiac delivery and utilized an M260 promoter and AAV9. Very good expression and function was achieved in the heart, but very little skeletal muscle expression (Straub & Campbell, Curr Opin Neurol 10, 168-175 (1997).

This cassette was cloned it into the AAV2.MHCK7/synthetic polyA backbone to achieve cardiac and skeletal muscle expression (FIG. 1 ) as described in Sacco et al. Cell 143, 1059-1071 (2010), Wallace et al. Annu Rev Physiol 71, 37-57 (2009) and Zhou et al. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 69, 771-776 (2010). It was this sequence that was encapsidated into AAVrh.74 virions. This serotype shares 93% amino acid identity with AAV8 and is most similar to a related Glade E virus rh.10 described by Wilson and colleagues (Desguerre et al. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 68, 762-773 (2009). The newly cloned micro-dys construct is characterized by an in-frame rod deletion. Hinges 1 and 4 remain but the spectrin-like repeats were removed with the exception of a small fragment of the final repeat (SR24). This allows for a full coding sequence of the N and C termini producing a 125 kDa protein. The micro-dystrophin protein (3,275 bp) is guided by a MHCK7 promoter (790 bp). The total construct size is 8,329 bp. After viral vector production, the micro-dys.c-term construct was tested for potency. The micro-dystrophin cassette has a small 53 bp synthetic polyA signal for mRNA termination.

Previous studies have validated cardiac expression using MHCK7 promoter (Salva et al. Mol Ther 15, 320-329 (2007) and AAVrh74 achieving skeletal, diaphragm, and cardiac muscle expression (Sondergaard et al. Annals of clinical and Transl Neurology 2, 256-270, 2015). The nucleotide sequence of construct of FIG. 1 was encapsidated into AAVrh.74 virions. The molecular clone of the AAVrh.74 serotype was cloned from a rhesus macaque lymph node and is described in in Rodino-Klapac et al. Journal of Translational medicine 5, 45 (2007).

Example 2

Intramuscular Expression Studies Using pAAV.MHCK7.Micro-Dystrophin.C-Terminus

Expression studies were conducted with this human micro-dystrophin containing the C terminus cassette (rAAVrh.74.MHCK7.micro-dys.c-term) by intramuscular injection. The tibialis anterior muscle of mdx mice was injected with 1×10¹¹ vg or 3×10¹¹ vg (n=5 per group). Six weeks later the muscles were harvested and stained for dystrophin expression with the C-terminal polyclonal antibody. The results of the dose study are presented below in FIG. 2 . Comparative dosing at 1e11 and 3e11 vg demonstrates that good gene expression was achieved at both the low and high dose. Immunohistological staining for dystrophin with the C-terminal polyclonal antibody indicated dose dependent expression (FIG. 3 ).

Example 3

Systemic Delivery of pAAV.MHCK7.Micro-Dystrophin.C-Terminus to Mdx Mice

Cohorts of mdx mice were injected with 6c12 vg (2c14 vg/kg) of rAAVrh.74.MHCK7.micro-dys.c-term. Systemically injected (tail vein) mdx mice (n=5) showed high levels of staining throughout all muscles. FIG. 4 represents the widespread transduction of cardiac muscle fibers after a 6e12 vg systemic dose. Following 6 weeks of treatment, all muscles were harvested and the number of dystrophin positive fibers were quantified (Table 1).

REFERENCES

-   1. Hoffman, E. P., Brown, R. H., Jr. & Kunkel, L. M. Dystrophin: the     protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus. Cell 51,     919-928 (1987). -   2. Straub, V. & Campbell, K. P. Muscular dystrophies and the     dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. Curr Opin Neurol 10, 168-175     (1997). -   3. Sacco, A., et al. Short telomeres and stem cell exhaustion model     Duchenne muscular dystrophy in mdx/mTR mice. Cell 143, 1059-1071     (2010). -   4. Wallace, G. Q. & McNally, E. M. Mechanisms of muscle     degeneration, regeneration, and repair in the muscular dystrophies.     Annu Rev Physiol 71, 37-57 (2009). -   5. Zhou, L. & Lu, H. Targeting fibrosis in Duchenne muscular     dystrophy. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 69, 771-776 (2010). -   6. Desguerre, I., et al. Endomysial fibrosis in Duchenne muscular     dystrophy: a marker of poor outcome associated with macrophage     alternative activation. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 68, 762-773 (2009). -   7. DiPrimio, N., McPhee, S. W. & Samulski, R. J. Adeno-associated     virus for the treatment of muscle diseases: toward clinical trials.     Curr Opin Mol Ther 12, 553-560 (2010). -   8. Mendell, J. R., et al. Sustained alpha-sarcoglycan gene     expression after gene transfer in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy,     type 2D. Ann Neurol 68, 629-638 (2010). -   9. Mendell, J. R., et al. Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2D     gene therapy restores alpha-sarcoglycan and associated proteins. Ann     Neurol 66, 290-297 (2009). -   10. Mendell, J. R., et al. A phase 1/2a follistatin gene therapy     trial for becker muscular dystrophy. Molecular therapy: the journal     of the American Society of Gene Therapy 23, 192-201 (2015). -   11. Carnwath, J. W. & Shotton, D. M. Muscular dystrophy in the mdx     mouse: histopathology of the soleus and extensor digitorum longus     muscles. J Neurol Sci 80, 39-54 (1987). -   12. Coulton, G. R., Morgan, J. E., Partridge, T. A. & Sloper, J. C.     The mdx mouse skeletal muscle myopathy: I. A histological,     morphometric and biochemical investigation. Neuropathol Appl     Neurobiol 14, 53-70 (1988). -   13. Cullen, M. J. & Jaros, E. Ultrastructure of the skeletal muscle     in the X chromosome-linked dystrophic (mdx) mouse. Comparison with     Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Acta Neuropathol 77, 69-81 (1988). -   14. Dupont-Versteegden, E. E. & McCarter, R. J. Differential     expression of muscular dystrophy in diaphragm versus hindlimb     muscles of mdx mice. Muscle Nerve 15, 1105-1110 (1992). -   15. Stedman, H. H., et al. The mdx mouse diaphragm reproduces the     degenerative changes of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Nature 352,     536-539 (1991). -   16. Deconinck, A. E., et al. Utrophin-dystrophin-deficient mice as a     model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cell 90, 717-727 (1997). -   17. Grady, R. M., et al. Skeletal and cardiac myopathies in mice     lacking utrophin and dystrophin: a model for Duchenne muscular     dystrophy. Cell 90, 729-738 (1997). -   18. Love, D. R., et al. An autosomal transcript in skeletal muscle     with homology to dystrophin. Nature 339, 55-58 (1989). -   19. Tinsley, J. M., et al. Primary structure of dystrophin-related     protein. Nature 30, 591-593 (1992). -   20. Tinsley, J., et al. Expression of full-length utrophin prevents     muscular dystrophy in mdx mice. Nat Med 4, 1441-1444 (1998). -   21. Squire, S., et al. Prevention of pathology in mdx mice by     expression of utrophin: analysis using an inducible transgenic     expression system. Hum Mol Genet 11, 3333-3344 (2002). -   22. Rafael, J. A., Tinsley, J. M., Potter, A. C., Deconinck, A. E. &     Davies, K. E. Skeletal muscle-specific expression of a utrophin     transgene rescues utrophin-dystrophin deficient mice. Nat Genet 19,     79-82 (1998). -   23. Zhou, L., et al. Haploinsufficiency of utrophin gene worsens     skeletal muscle inflammation and fibrosis in mdx mice. J Neurol Sci     264, 106-111 (2008). -   24. Gutpell, K. M., Hrinivich, W. T. & Hoffman, L. M. Skeletal     Muscle Fibrosis in the mdx/utrn+/− Mouse Validates Its Suitability     as a Murine Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. PloS one 10,     e0117306 (2015). -   25. Rodino-Klapac, L. R., et al. Micro-dystrophin and follistatin     co-delivery restores muscle function in aged DMD model. Human     molecular genetics 22, 4929-4937 (2013). -   26. Nevo. Y., et al. The Ras antagonist, farnesylthiosalicylic acid     (FTS), decreases fibrosis and improves muscle strength in dy/dy     mouse model of muscular dystrophy. PloS one 6, e18049 (2011). -   27. Rodino-Klapac, L. R., et al. A translational approach for limb     vascular delivery of the micro-dystrophin gene without high volume     or high pressure for treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J     Transl Med 5, 45 (2007). -   28. Mulieri, L. A., Hasenfuss, G., Ittleman, F., Blanchard, E. M. &     Alpert, N. R. Protection of human left ventricular myocardium from     cutting injury with 2,3-butanedione monoxime. Circ Res 65, 1441-1449     (1989). -   29. Rodino-Klapac, L. R., et al. Persistent expression of     FLAG-tagged micro dystrophin in nonhuman primates following     intramuscular and vascular delivery. Molecular therapy: the journal     of the American Society of Gene Therapy 18, 109-117 (2010). -   30. Grose, W. E., et al. Homologous recombination mediates     functional recovery of dysferlin deficiency following AAV5 gene     transfer. PloS one 7, e39233 (2012). -   31. Liu, M., et al. Adeno-associated virus-mediated microdystrophin     expression protects young mdx muscle from contraction-induced     injury. Mol Ther 11, 245-256 (2005). -   32. Harper, S. Q., et al. Modular flexibility of dystrophin:     implications for gene therapy of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Nature     medicine 8, 253-261 (2002). -   33. Rodino-Klapac, L. R., et al. Persistent expression of     FLAG-tagged micro dystrophin in nonhuman primates following     intramuscular and vascular delivery. Mol Ther 18, 109-117 (2010). -   34. Salva, M. Z., et al. Design of tissue-specific regulatory     cassettes for high-level rAAV-mediated expression in skeletal and     cardiac muscle. Mol Ther 15, 320-329 (2007). -   35. Sondergaard, P. C., et al. AAV.Dysferlin Overlap Vectors Restore     Function in Dysferlinopathy Animal Models. Annals of clinical and     translational neurology 2, 256-270 (2015). -   36. De, B. P., et al. High levels of persistent expression of     alphal-antitrypsin mediated by the nonhuman primate serotype rh.10     adeno-associated virus despite preexisting immunity to common human     adeno-associated viruses. Mol Ther 13, 67-76 (2006). -   37. Rodino-Klapac, L. R., et al. A translational approach for limb     vascular delivery of the micro-dystrophin gene without high volume     or high pressure for treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy.     Journal of translational medicine 5, 45 (2007). -   38. Bulfield et al., X chromosome-linked muscular dystrophy (mdx) in     the mouse. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1984; 81(4): 1189-1192. -   39. Sicinski et al., The molecular basis of muscular dystrophy in     the mdx mouse: a point mutation. Science. 1989 30;244(4912):1578-80 

1. A recombinant AAV vector particle comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:
 1. 2. The recombinant AAV vector particle of claim 1 wherein the nucleotide sequence further comprises a muscle specific control element.
 3. The recombinant AAV vector particle of claim 2 wherein the muscle specific control element is human skeletal actin gene element, cardiac actin gene element, myocyte-specific enhancer binding factor (MEF) element, muscle creatine kinase (MCK), truncated MCK (tMCK), myosin heavy chain (MHC) control element, hybrid α-myosin heavy chain enhancer-/MCK enhancer-promoter (MHCK7), C5-12, murine creatine kinase enhancer element, skeletal fast-twitch troponin c gene element, slow-twitch cardiac troponin c gene element, the slow-twitch troponin I gene element, the hypoxia-inducible nuclear factors, steroid-inducible element or glucocorticoid response element (GRE).
 4. The recombinant AAV vector particle of claim 1, wherein the nucleotide sequence comprises of the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 5. A recombinant AAV vector comprising the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 6. The recombinant AAV vector of claim 5 wherein the vector is a the serotype AAVrh.74, AAV1, AAV2, AAV4, AAV5, AAV6, AAV7, AAV8, AAV9, AAV10, AAV11, AAV12 or AAV13.
 7. A composition comprising the recombinant AAV vector of claim 5 and a carrier.
 8. A method of increasing muscular force or muscle mass in a subject suffering from muscular dystrophy comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the recombinant AAV vector of claim 5 to the subject.
 9. A method of treating muscular dystrophy comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of the recombinant AAV vector of claim 5 to the subject.
 10. The method of claim 8 wherein the muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
 11. The method of claim 8 wherein the recombinant AAV vector or the composition is administered by intramuscular injection or intravenous injection.
 12. (canceled)
 13. The method of claim 8, where the recombinant AAV vector is parenterally administered by injection, infusion or implantation. 14-25. (canceled)
 26. The method of claim 9 wherein the muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
 27. The method of claim 9 wherein the recombinant AAV vector is administered by intramuscular injection or intravenous injection.
 28. The method of claim 27, where the recombinant AAV vector is parenterally administered by injection, infusion or implantation.
 29. A method of producing a rAAV vector particle comprising culturing a cell that has been transfected with a nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, and recovering rAAV vector particle.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein the nucleotide sequence further comprises a muscle specific control element.
 31. The method of claim 30, wherein the recombinant AAV vector particle of claim 2 wherein the muscle specific control element is human skeletal actin gene element, cardiac actin gene element, myocyte-specific enhancer binding factor (MEF) element, muscle creatine kinase (MCK), truncated MCK (tMCK), myosin heavy chain (MHC) control element, hybrid α-myosin heavy chain enhancer-/MCK enhancer-promoter (MHCK7), C5-12, murine creatine kinase enhancer element, skeletal fast-twitch troponin c gene element, slow-twitch cardiac troponin c gene element, the slow-twitch troponin I gene element, the hypoxia-inducible nuclear factors, steroid-inducible element or glucocorticoid response element (GRE).
 32. The method of claim 30 wherein the nucleotide sequence comprises the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:
 2. 33. a rAAV particle produced by the method of claim
 30. 